U.S. Budget Deficit - Good Or Bad Essays - Fiscal Policy

U.S. Budget Deficit - Good or Bad? ?Spending financed not by current tax receipts, but by borrowing or drawing upon past tax reserves.? , Is it a good idea? Why does the U.S. run a deficit? Since 1980 the deficit has grown enormously. Some say its a bad thing, and predict impending doom, others say it is a safe and stable necessity to maintain a healthy economy. When the U.S. government came into existence and for about a 150 years thereafter the government managed to keep a balanced budget. The only times a budget deficit existed during these first 150 years were in times of war or other catastrophic events. The Government, for inezce, generated deficits during the War of 1812, the recession of 1837, the Civil War, the depression of the 1890s, and World War I. However, as soon as the war ended the deficit would be eliminated and the economy which was much larger than the amounted debt would quickly absorb it. The last time the budget ran a surplus was in 1969 during Nixon's presidency. Budget deficits have grown larger and more frequent in the last half-century. In the 1980s they soared to record levels. The Government cut income tax rates, greatly increased defense spending, and didn't cut domestic spending enough to make up the difference. Also, the deep recession of the early 1980s reduced revenues, raising the deficit and forcing the Government to spend much more on paying interest for the national debt at a time when interest rates were high. As a result, the national debt grew in size after 1980. It grew from $709 billion to $3.6 trillion in 1990, only one decade later. Increase of National Debt Since 1980 Month Amount -------------------------------------------- 12/31/1980 $930,210,000,000.00 * 12/31/1981 $1,028,729,000,000.00 * 12/31/1982 $1,197,073,000,000.00 * 12/31/1983 $1,410,702,000,000.00 * 12/31/1984 $1,662,966,000,000.00 * 12/31/1985 $1,945,941,616,459.88 12/31/1986 $2,214,834,532,586.43 12/31/1987 $2,431,715,264,976.86 12/30/1988 $2,684,391,916,571.41 12/29/1989 $2,952,994,244,624.71 12/31/1990 $3,364,820,230,276.86 12/31/1991 $3,801,698,272,862.02 12/31/1992 $4,177,009,244,468.77 12/31/1993 $4,535,687,054,406.14 12/30/1994 $4,800,149,946,143.75 10/31/1995 $4,985,262,110,021.06 11/30/1995 $4,989,329,926,644.31 12/29/1995 $4,988,664,979,014.54 01/31/1996 $4,987,436,358,165.20 02/29/1996 $5,017,040,703,255.02 03/29/1996 $5,117,786,366,014.56 04/30/1996 $5,102,048,827,234.22 05/31/1996 $5,128,508,504,892.80 06/28/1996 $5,161,075,688,140.93 07/31/1996 $5,188,888,625,925.87 08/30/1996 $5,208,303,439,417.93 09/30/1996 $5,224,810,939,135.73 10/01/1996 $5,234,730,786,626.50 10/02/1996 $5,235,509,457,452.56 10/03/1996 $5,222,192,137,251.62 10/04/1996 $5,222,049,625,819.53 * Rounded to Millions Federal spending has grown over the years, especially starting in the 1930s in actual dollars and in proportion to the economy (Gross Domestic Product, or GDP). Beginning with the "New Deal" in the 1930s, the Federal Government came to play a much larger role in American life. President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to use the full powers of his office to end the Great Depression. He and Congress greatly expanded Federal programs. Federal spending, which totaled less than $4 billion in 1931, went up to nearly $7 billion in 1934 and to over $8 billion in 1936. Then, U.S. entry into World War II sent annual Federal spending soaring to over $91 billion by 1944. Thus began the ever increasing debt of the United States. What if the debt is not increasing as fast as we think it is? The dollar amount of the debt may increase but often times so does the amount of money or GDP to pay for the debt. This brings up the idea that the deficit could be run without cost. How could a deficit increase productivity without any cost? The idea of having a balanced budget is challenged by the ideas of Keynesian Economics. Keynesian economics is an economic model that predicts in times of low demand and high unemployment a deficit will not cost anything. Instead a deficit would allow more people to work, increasing productivity. A deficit does this because it is invested into the economy by government. For example if the government spends deficit money on new highways, trucking will benefit and more jobs will be produced. When an economic system is in recession all of its resources are not being used. For example if the government did not build highways we could not ship goods and there would be less demand for them. The supply remains low even though we have the ability to produce more because we cannot ship them. This non-productivity comes at a cost to the whole economic system. If deficit spending eliminates non-productivity then its direct monetary cost will be offset if not surpassed by increased productivity. For example in the 1980's when the huge deficits were adding up the actual additions to the public capital or increased productivity were often as big, or bigger than

Good Organization Is Good Strategy With Lindsay Scarpello From OBI Creative

Good Organization Is Good Strategy With Lindsay Scarpello From OBI Creative Does it feel like you are trying to herd cats? Managing your marketing that way is not strategic. Get organized to manage your time, help you predict how long projects will take, and plan ahead to get real results. Today, we’re talking to Lindsay Scarpello, an organizational mastermind with a background in journalism. Marketers need to think like journalists. Learn organizational and time management skills, as well as how processes and workflows are imperative for success. Some of the highlights of the show include: Lindsay’s role at OBI Creative, a research and communications advertising agency Lindsay’s employment background in journalism and marketing Build trust with customers through education and high-quality content Organizational skills needed for marketers to succeed Time Management: You can’t miss deadlines and must be willing to hustle Decipher and present data in a digestible way Find and implement tools to maximize your time; keep using what works for you Lindsay plans ahead to stay organized with her time Be aware of what’s going on by using To Do list apps, notebook, or other tools Build a foundation of organizational skills to boost results and be an investment Organization becomes a habit in your personal and professional life Spend time defining processes to be able to execute them Content Planning Process: Research, build strategy/create steps, receive feedback, and implement How to plan content ahead of time using rules of marketing Be tech savvy and have working knowledge of all Microsoft Office programs Know how your brain works and your company’s goals   Ã‚   Powered by PodcastMotor Actionable Content Marketing powered by By AMP083: Why â€Å"Good Organization Is Good Strategy† With Lindsay Scarpello From OBI Creative 00:00/00:00 1x 100 > Download file Subscribe on iTunes Leave Review Share Links: Lindsay Scarpello OBI Creative Mary Ann O’Brien Wunderlist Evernote Microsoft Office Panda Planner HubSpot Buffer Flywheel AMP on iTunes leave a review and send screenshot to podcast@.com If you liked today’s show, please subscribe on iTunes to The Actionable Content Marketing Podcast! The podcast is also available on SoundCloud, Stitcher, and Google Play. Quotes by Lindsay: â€Å"I think it all goes back to writing. I think being able to write content and create content has been paramount to brand success.† â€Å"In order to engage on social, in order to attract customers, regardless of what kind of customer you have, you have to build trust.† â€Å"You have to be planning ahead because the news doesn’t wait for anyone.†

A Man In The Middle Attack Computer Science Essay

A Man In The Middle Attack Computer Science Essay Today computer networks are used to transmit large amounts of data which may or may not contain sensitive information. Within this document I will be discussing ways in which your networks may become venerable to attacks. Man in the middle attacks, spanning tree attacks, security issues related to trunking, and security issues relating to identity spoofing. What is a Man in the middle attack? Man in the middle attack is a name given to a type of attack where the person intercepts communication being sent across a data network. This type of attack is also known as a Bucket-brigade attack, Fire brigade attack, Monkey-in-the-middle attack, Session hijacking, TCP hijacking, TCP session hijacking etc. Man in the middle attack is an attack that is usually performed on a internal network. Man in the middle attacks are where hackers introduce a rouge device onto the network then intercept communication between two network devices. This is done by sending out a series of ARP requests and ARP responses to two devices making them think that they are talking to each other. An example of a man in the middle attack would consist of two hosts, host one and host two. The hacker would connect a rouge device, host three, most likely on the same switch that both host one and two are connected to. Once that he is able to communicate on the network he would then send out ARP requests and responses to both host one and two making them believe that he is the other host. This will make host one and two re-route there connection through host three. once host one and host two are communicating between each other via the new connection established by host three, the hacker will now be able to capture packets sent between them. Once an attacker has performed a man in the middle attack, they can use this in a number of ways for example Public Key Exchanging, Command Injection, Malicious Code Injection, Downgrade Attacks etc. There are many tools available that network managers will use in order to monitor their networks. These tools can also be used from a hackers point of view as they allow the hacker to capture packets that are being sent across the network. This essentially allows the hacker to see what you are doing. The following tools are commonly used for capturing and analysing network traffic by an attacker WiresharkÂÂ ® is a network protocol analyzer. It lets you capture and interactively browse the traffic running on a computer network. It has a rich and powerful feature set and is world’s most popular tool of its kind. It runs on most computing platforms including Windows, OS X, Linux, and UNIX. Network professionals, security experts, developers, and educators around the world use it regularly. It is freely available as open source, and is released under the GNU General Public License version 2. http://wireshark.com Ettercap is a comprehensive suite for man in the middle attacks. It features sniffing of live connections, content filtering on the fly and many other interesting tricks. It supports active and passive dissection of many protocols and includes many features for network and host analysis.

International business management Strategic Information Management Essay

International business management Strategic Information Management - Essay Example SIM is important because information tends to become vague and complicated and very often it can be Organisational Activity can demonstrate a lack of quality in the information.2 A Strategic Information System (SIS) aligns itself with the management strategy and the structure of a Firm and allows the timely response to changes recurring in the business environment and competition issues.3 Wiseman (1985) has defined the strategic information system (SIS) as, "The information system to support or change enterprise's strategy."4 The general perspective of Information management involves a reference to the management of any kind of information .This may involve document management, electronic document management records management, document imaging, process automation and digital asset management.(Wiseman 1985) Historically information management was subject to the nuances of bureaucratic procedures and had a limited role in management decisions.(Galliers 1991).The potential of profit by information management systems has only emerged in the recent decades and the modern businesses view information as a weapon against competition and a strategic resource. (Galliers 1991).The former attitude changed radically in the mid-sixties when organisations started viewing information as a tool for general management support. Until the decade of the eighties however information management was limited to weekly financial and management reporting and accounts of inventory and arrears.(Galliers 1991) During the early nineties these information systems emerged as serving a special purpose. At this point information systems like decision-support systems (DSS)5 and executive support systems (ESS)6 became popular with the main aim of support and the fast expedition of the decision-making process of organisations (managers and executives). (Swatman 1995). Prominent examples of Strategic information systems have included the use of SABRE and APOLLO by the US Airlines in the past for the increase in travel bookings of these Carriers by making sure their names appeared on the first screens of the travel agents.7 In the recent times Information has emerged as a strategic resource to gain competitive advantage, as well as to defeat and frustrate the competition. (Porter 1985).An important example quoted by Porter (1985) of information management is the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1980 the philosophy behind which was to manage information by requiring federal government agencies to develop an information resource officer's role. Such systems being an integral part of SIM ensure the organisations survival in the fast track corporate world. Porter(1985) has also identified a value chain model to help identify problem areas in information systems in order to supply a strategic advantage. Porter (1980) has also identified the competitive forces model which describes a number of external threats and opportunities which can be countered by competitive strategies. See below for a model diagram of both these concepts. The potential of information systems is immense as it can be developed to not only defeat rivals but also to counter the pressure from competing substitutes and an

Mysticism in East Asia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Mysticism in East Asia - Essay Example The powers of the western world that colonized the eastern countries admired the purity of the faith. The achievement of modernity was an important factor in the nineteenth and twentieth century and Buddhism was a great contributor towards the reaching of this early status of modernity in Japan. Buddhism is considered to be one of the very old religion but its roots mainly lay in the eastern world and particularly in the countries of China and Japan. This religion promotes peace and harmony but it also plays a role towards the development of success and self importance. The interest of the western world in Buddhism achieved a great rise in the nineteenth and twentieth century, particularly after the success of Japan in achieving the status of a modern nation. This is because it was a belief that the major contributor in assisting Japan towards this accomplishment was in the following of Buddhism. Dogen was an important figure in the history of Buddhism. He was the main teacher in the creation of Zen Buddhism in the early thirteenth century. Dogen laid great stress upon sitting and meditating. He believed that a person should be in a state of â€Å"non thinking.’ According to him this time which a person spent was very important because it assisted in the bringing together of the soul and the body of a human being. He would then be able to achieve a spiritual level that is the level which is required by a Buddha. These presentations of his beliefs clearly show his tilt towards mysticism and the recognition of the inner world. He believed that the greater the person would know about hi inner self the more he would be successful in the outer world as well. Zen is a part of the teachings of Dogen. There are views regarding this belief. It is considered first to play a great role toward the achievement of success as it pushes a person towards modernity because when he has knowledge of the inner

Why Marching Band Should Be Considered a Sport Essay Example for Free

Why Marching Band Should Be Considered a Sport Essay There may be as many as 500+ members in a marching band, each having their own part that inter-locks with the 499 others. I believe marching band should be considered a sport. Everyone must be incredibly coordinated and precise. The band as a whole, and individually must practice. Then theres all the physical stresses that you have to overcome. Coordination plays a key roll in marching. A lot of teamwork goes into it as well. All the musicians have to play in the right key, stay in step, and stay musically in time or else the entire show could be compromised. Memorizing game plays is a large roll in football and other team sports, same with band. You must remember the basic notes, key signatures, and various other musical symbols. Then there are the hundreds of sets, or where and when you have to be on the field during the show. Just one person off can throw off the entire form or melody. Athletes selected for the Olympics have trained for almost all their lives for their event. In Bellevue Wests marching training, we have a two week period of living hell, aka band camp. You basically do nothing but eat, sleep, and think band during the two hottest weeks of the entire summer. Mr. Haugen, our band director, pushes hard and some break down and quit, but in the end, the majority of the group is remaining. All thats left now is a well oiled machine, just like any sports team. I only hinted how physically demanding this â€Å"extra-curricular activity† actually is. You must carry an instrument exactly level while marching, and all your body wants to do is bounce up and down like loose luggage. Then if youre a sousaphone, like me, you have around 45-50 lb. ushing down on your shoulder as you try to elevate yourself as high as possible, as to follow correct marching form. Then you must remember that half your air as you march down the field, goes to playing your instrument. If thats not enough, youre also trapped in a dark, thick fabric uniform, squeezing the last whistles of your breath from your lungs. It may be only for 15 minutes, but even track athletes get breaks in-between events. In those god-forsaken uniforms, that quarter hour feels like centuries. For some odd reason, people have the idea that its easy to play in motion, its anything but! You must have incredible music-making skills, especially considering your bouncing up and down as you sometimes run to get to your spot. Sports are very physically strenuous and demanding, so is marching. Sports teams practice all year long to get ready to compete, we only the summer and a few weeks into school. Each individual plays such a key role in the tone and appearance of the band, its unreal. Marching band isnt just a bunch of nerds and fat guys playing tubas. Its a tight-knit brotherhood of strength and skill. Like football, if you are not in the right spot, you arent scoring the touchdown.

The Crusades Essay -- history

The Crusades Though the causes of the crusades can easily be distinguished the one cause can not be effectively since there is always something that will contradict it. The crusades took place because of the rivalry as well as the clash of cultures between the Catholic Church and the Muslims, they both wanted power, the crusaders wanted more land, and more wealth and both parties wanted to be closer to the Armageddon. It can easily be determined that there was a rivalry between the Catholics and the Muslims. Reading the view of each other in the 11 century shows that they really didn't get together well. There are many reasons for this understatement. First their religions were essentially the same thing, though the Muslim point of view stated that Mohammed was the chosen one. Even though Christ was a man of God the Muslim point of view didn't accept him as the chosen one. The Christians point of view was that of the opposite they don't even believe that Mohammed had the word of God and that it was Christ, the true saviour. First hand documents of the Muslims and the Catholics have very biased points of view and are very hard to understand what really happened. The Muslims claimed to be healers with the more accurate way of living with practising science and maths, their view of the Christians was people who live to far north the cold shrinks their brains resulting in poor eating habits needs as w ell as a lack of intelligence causing ignorance and stupidity. The Christ...

Rebecca vs. Rowena Essay

Rebecca and Rowena both bring two different worlds and aspects to the book. They also bring the feminine touches to the novel because they are the only female characters that are talked about in depth by Sir Walter Scott. Rebecca and Rowena also show the struggles and obstacles that women in 12th century Britain would have faced. Firstly, a major difference between these two characters is of course their racial and religious backgrounds. Rowena is a well off Christian Anglo-Saxon while Rebecca is a wealthy Jew. This difference may not seem so crucial but it turned out to be the very reason why Rebecca wasn’t able to marry the love she loved- Ivanhoe. The reason being that during this time being a Jew wasn’t such a great thing. The English men were jealous that the Jews had accumulated so much wealth so they retaliated the only way they could- with words, insults, and social snubbing. As a result, Rebecca was looked down upon while Rowena was adored by many. While on the topic of their adorers, it would be improper not to discuss the different pressures that they faced due to their social statuses and standings. Due to Rowena’s Christian- Saxon heritage her father wanted her to marry Athelstane so that they could carry on the strong Saxon line. On the other hand, Rebecca wasn’t pressured to marry anyone. In actual fact she did not start off with any pursuers because nobody necessarily wanted to marry a Jew; even a wealthy one. During this time women had little to no say in whom they married or what their occupations were. I was based more off of who you were and where in society your class stood. Women especially had even less rights if they were in the lower class but in this case it is reversed. Rebecca was able to pursue her passion of medicine and later go on to heal Ivanhoe. Rowena would not have been able to pursue such a manly occupation, not when she was supposed to be of a noble and higher class. Similarly though, the two women of the book in their own ways are heroines in the book. A heroine has many characteristics that the two women displayed. Rowena for example showed dignity, modesty, and strength. She showed modesty when she met Rebecca at the end of the novel and though she  knew the way that Rebecca felt about Ivanhoe she didn’t gloat or mock her instead she consoled her. She displayed true heroine characteristics. I like to think there are two types of strengths: physical strength and emotional strength. Most women have the latter. I believe emotional strength is harder to acquire than physical strength because it’s not something that you can go the gym and get after a few weeks of training. On this note I would like to discuss the emotional strength of Rowena. I also believe that Rebecca is a heroine because she was the tragedy of the novel. She had to walk away from the man she loved because she knew that it was not going to go anywhere due to their social standings. The kind of strength needed to comprehend that even though you are in love you can never act on it is one that I envy because it’s so admirable. She’s also an admirable heroine because when Rebecca goes to Rowena who’s still wearing her wedding dress Rebecca gives her rival- the women who gets to live happily ever after with the man that she loves- a gift. And this was not just any ordinary gift; it was a box of jewels. Again the emotional strength that Rebecca shows is covetous. In conclusion, Rebecca and Rowena are both women from two different classes, social standings, and completely different religions. However, we find that even with their differences they are still women plagued with things that two people in their polar circumstances face. They are both sought after and almost defiled by men who they are not betrothed to. They also fall in love which almost every women can contest they have felt once in their lifetime. So really apart from their differences they really are very much the same.

Importance of the Curriculum to the Society by Phunziro Mphwina

PURPOSE OF THE CURRICULUM TO THE SOCIETY Introduction In 1995 Hornby described education as a process of training and instruction of children and young people in educational institutions which is designed to give knowledge and develop skills useful to the society. This process is centred by a number of planned activities which hold the potentials of imparting the skills significant to the society just as the definition points out.An outline or structure of these activities is what makes up an educational curriculum. Pillai (1984; p5) defines the curriculum as a comprehensive plan for an educational training programme or course to offer new or improved manpower to fulfil the rising needs of a dynamic society . Below is a discussion of some of the purposes of the curriculum to the society. * The curriculum serves the function of a tool for societal development.The curriculum include important and knowledge to be imparted on the learners, this is to say that there is a supplement of ide as on the students despite their innate intelligence. These new ideas help in discoveries that may assist in the society’s growth for example, new ways of increasing agricultural productivity. A student at school may encounter an idea that may help in the increase of agricultural outputs and if he implements this new idea, the society to which he belongs, would develop economically.A point which Jacobs (1997, p23) agrees with by saying that â€Å"education is the realization of each person’s unique potentialities thus, education focuses on the social conditions that block the fullest realisation of individual potentialities as it emphasizes on the changes in the present system required to bring about a more humanistic society†. This is just to say that education allows learners to make important contributions to the societies to which they belong, on the other hand enhancing the development of their particular societies. The curriculum also works as a source of societal cohesion. Webster (2011, p365) described a society as an enduring and cooperating social group whose members have developed organized patterns of relationships through interaction with one another. This togetherness is partially achieved through the curriculum in that the curriculum holds distinctive aims and objectives and these are shared amongst all kinds of members of educational institutions across the nation.This is to say that there are similar goals set across the communities of the nation despite the societal differences. To achieve these goals and objectives the society members must share ideas and cooperate and this fosters cohesion as members of different communities are inclined to come together and formulate ways by which they can attain their shared goals. The curriculum serving the purpose of cohesion fostering element amongst members of the society. * The curriculum holds the purpose of effective societal problem solving.Basing on one of the ideologies on w hich education is found, it can be easily said that education can be used for effective societal problem solving, whereby the curriculum happens to be an integral part of the education system. Adopting such an ideology thus education for problem solving, it means that the curriculum in this case must pertain to such an ideology. Whereby it has to include activities and experiences that will allow students attain effective methods of problem solving. In this case the curriculum being used as a tool for effective problem solving.If student undergo experiences of such a curriculum it means they will positively contribute to their particular societies in terms of problem solving. Hence the curriculum depicting the purpose of effective problem solving in the society. Brosnan (1999, p64) agrees by saying that â€Å"the individual is a unique personality who finds his greatest satisfaction in self-expression in response to the changing world†. Thus humans find it less of a burden wh en they speak out their suggestions and solutions to particular problems affecting the society and this is exactly what the curriculum offers through the educational system. The curriculum works as tool for awareness in the society. In the experiences included in the educational curriculum, there are relevant topics that each and every person is to be aware of, for example in Social studies are concerning human rights, child and women’s welfare. These are some of the important things that are rendered to the students under the guidance of the curriculum, when these learners accommodate such ideas and dissipate them on those that happen to be of a shared society as these learners, the curriculum may work as an agent of awareness.This would be so as the learners would function as messengers in their societies as they will let the others know their rights and entitlements. Hence the curriculum serving the purpose of an awareness agent in the society. * The curriculum serves the purpose of societal problem identification. This idea comes about during the development of the curriculum, where a number of steps are covered on of which is that of identifying the background of a nation before coming up with the curriculum.As the professionals struggle to come up with basis of a country they also realise the problem that a nation goes through both in the social economic and cultural context. These problems are implicitly addressed in the activities that are included in the curriculum, thus for example commerce studies which equips students with commercial skills, may help eradicate financial problems that members of the society encounter. Hence the curriculum serving the function of problem identification and solution implementation in the society. * The curriculum as an element for cultural preservation and continuity in the society.Knowing that different societies hold different beliefs and values, the curriculum put into account these differences. This is done when the professionals are formulating the curriculum they tend to include some of the major beliefs and values that the children must be equipped with in older to achieve cultural preservation and continuity. Inclusion of experiences that hold cultural values does not only ensure cultural continuity but also enable the students to recognise their national and cultural identities, how they are developed, and how they can be maintained in their respective societies (O’Neill, 1990; p78).Thus the curriculum being in the position of enhancing cultural preservation and continuity in the society. * Ethical function of the curriculum The curriculum being at the centre of the education system, it holds all sorts of functions along with it, one of which includes social control. In this case the curriculum helps in maintenance of law and older in the society, whereby the curriculum gives learners the access to instruction for proper behaviour and personal conduct, for example, at scho ols children are taught not to steak from others rather to ask for whatever they want in a polite manner.This is the expected mode of conduct which helps reduce cases of increased rates of thieves as these youngsters are nurtured to behave in the required way in their early stages of life. In this case inclusion of such elements in the curriculum enables members of the society to be morally sound. Hence the curriculum serving the function of ensuring ethical conduct. * The curriculum helping in shaping the society The International Educational Agency (I. E.R) report (2006, p3), pin pointed that the curriculum as the core of the education system helps equip students with better skills of reflection which is a vital element for students to grow as learners and as useful citizens of the society. Coupled with the skills of gathering and organising information students have constant opportunities to practice responsible self-direction in the society. In addition, much of the curriculum i s concerned with allowing students to learn about how people live in other places, times and how they are expected to influence the society.These understandings help students to develop high levels of self-awareness. This all can be achieved through the curriculum hence the curriculum helping in shaping the society by producing students that will be able to effectively self-guide themselves in the society. Conclusion Despite the strengths that govern the curriculum, there are a lot of shortfalls that can be corrected, for example inclusion of the rights of those in minority, thus the disabled, elderly just to mention a few. These also happen to be part and parcel of the society, whereby the topics of awareness included in the curriculum seem to dwell much on the abled.Consideration of teacher’s expertise when it comes to their familiarity with the materials and methods prescribed to be used in the teaching and learning process, this is to say that the curriculum indicates tha t it assumes that teachers are conversant with the materials they are expected to use in the teaching and learning process. Even though the curriculum assigns teachers to particular topic to teach, it does not opt for a follow up on whether there is observation of the prescribed topics and see if the required values are really being imparted on to the learners for the society’s benefit.REFERENCES Brosnan, M. J. (1999). Modelling Technophobia: a case for word processing Computers in Human Behaviour, New York; Guilford Hornby, A. S. (1995). Oxford dictionary: advanced learners edition 5, London; Oxford press International Education Agency, (2006). Report: Society and environment curriculum, revised edition: I. E. A Jacobs, D. (1996). LISREL8 user's reference guide, Illinois, USA: Scientific Software International. O'Neill, W. F. (1990). Educational Ideologies Contemporary Expressions of Educational Philosophy, Iowa: Kendall / Hunt Publishing CompanyPillai B. M. (1984). Smart sc hools: Better thinking and learning for every child, New York, USA: The Free Press. Webster, M. (2011). Higher Education in the 21st Century: Futures, New Jersey: USA Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF FOUNDATION STUDIES COURSE TITLE: CURRICULUM THEORY AND PRACTICE COOURSE CODE: EDU 3102 TO: Mrs O Nampanda FROM: Phunziro B. M Mphwina ASSIGNMENT: THE PURPOSE OF THE CURRICULUM TO THE SOCIETY DUE DATE 22/03/13 Importance of the Curriculum to the Society by Phunziro Mphwina PURPOSE OF THE CURRICULUM TO THE SOCIETY Introduction In 1995 Hornby described education as a process of training and instruction of children and young people in educational institutions which is designed to give knowledge and develop skills useful to the society. This process is centred by a number of planned activities which hold the potentials of imparting the skills significant to the society just as the definition points out.An outline or structure of these activities is what makes up an educational curriculum. Pillai (1984; p5) defines the curriculum as a comprehensive plan for an educational training programme or course to offer new or improved manpower to fulfil the rising needs of a dynamic society . Below is a discussion of some of the purposes of the curriculum to the society. * The curriculum serves the function of a tool for societal development.The curriculum include important and knowledge to be imparted on the learners, this is to say that there is a supplement of ide as on the students despite their innate intelligence. These new ideas help in discoveries that may assist in the society’s growth for example, new ways of increasing agricultural productivity. A student at school may encounter an idea that may help in the increase of agricultural outputs and if he implements this new idea, the society to which he belongs, would develop economically.A point which Jacobs (1997, p23) agrees with by saying that â€Å"education is the realization of each person’s unique potentialities thus, education focuses on the social conditions that block the fullest realisation of individual potentialities as it emphasizes on the changes in the present system required to bring about a more humanistic society†. This is just to say that education allows learners to make important contributions to the societies to which they belong, on the other hand enhancing the development of their particular societies. The curriculum also works as a source of societal cohesion. Webster (2011, p365) described a society as an enduring and cooperating social group whose members have developed organized patterns of relationships through interaction with one another. This togetherness is partially achieved through the curriculum in that the curriculum holds distinctive aims and objectives and these are shared amongst all kinds of members of educational institutions across the nation.This is to say that there are similar goals set across the communities of the nation despite the societal differences. To achieve these goals and objectives the society members must share ideas and cooperate and this fosters cohesion as members of different communities are inclined to come together and formulate ways by which they can attain their shared goals. The curriculum serving the purpose of cohesion fostering element amongst members of the society. * The curriculum holds the purpose of effective societal problem solving.Basing on one of the ideologies on w hich education is found, it can be easily said that education can be used for effective societal problem solving, whereby the curriculum happens to be an integral part of the education system. Adopting such an ideology thus education for problem solving, it means that the curriculum in this case must pertain to such an ideology. Whereby it has to include activities and experiences that will allow students attain effective methods of problem solving. In this case the curriculum being used as a tool for effective problem solving.If student undergo experiences of such a curriculum it means they will positively contribute to their particular societies in terms of problem solving. Hence the curriculum depicting the purpose of effective problem solving in the society. Brosnan (1999, p64) agrees by saying that â€Å"the individual is a unique personality who finds his greatest satisfaction in self-expression in response to the changing world†. Thus humans find it less of a burden wh en they speak out their suggestions and solutions to particular problems affecting the society and this is exactly what the curriculum offers through the educational system. The curriculum works as tool for awareness in the society. In the experiences included in the educational curriculum, there are relevant topics that each and every person is to be aware of, for example in Social studies are concerning human rights, child and women’s welfare. These are some of the important things that are rendered to the students under the guidance of the curriculum, when these learners accommodate such ideas and dissipate them on those that happen to be of a shared society as these learners, the curriculum may work as an agent of awareness.This would be so as the learners would function as messengers in their societies as they will let the others know their rights and entitlements. Hence the curriculum serving the purpose of an awareness agent in the society. * The curriculum serves the purpose of societal problem identification. This idea comes about during the development of the curriculum, where a number of steps are covered on of which is that of identifying the background of a nation before coming up with the curriculum.As the professionals struggle to come up with basis of a country they also realise the problem that a nation goes through both in the social economic and cultural context. These problems are implicitly addressed in the activities that are included in the curriculum, thus for example commerce studies which equips students with commercial skills, may help eradicate financial problems that members of the society encounter. Hence the curriculum serving the function of problem identification and solution implementation in the society. * The curriculum as an element for cultural preservation and continuity in the society.Knowing that different societies hold different beliefs and values, the curriculum put into account these differences. This is done when the professionals are formulating the curriculum they tend to include some of the major beliefs and values that the children must be equipped with in older to achieve cultural preservation and continuity. Inclusion of experiences that hold cultural values does not only ensure cultural continuity but also enable the students to recognise their national and cultural identities, how they are developed, and how they can be maintained in their respective societies (O’Neill, 1990; p78).Thus the curriculum being in the position of enhancing cultural preservation and continuity in the society. * Ethical function of the curriculum The curriculum being at the centre of the education system, it holds all sorts of functions along with it, one of which includes social control. In this case the curriculum helps in maintenance of law and older in the society, whereby the curriculum gives learners the access to instruction for proper behaviour and personal conduct, for example, at scho ols children are taught not to steak from others rather to ask for whatever they want in a polite manner.This is the expected mode of conduct which helps reduce cases of increased rates of thieves as these youngsters are nurtured to behave in the required way in their early stages of life. In this case inclusion of such elements in the curriculum enables members of the society to be morally sound. Hence the curriculum serving the function of ensuring ethical conduct. * The curriculum helping in shaping the society The International Educational Agency (I. E.R) report (2006, p3), pin pointed that the curriculum as the core of the education system helps equip students with better skills of reflection which is a vital element for students to grow as learners and as useful citizens of the society. Coupled with the skills of gathering and organising information students have constant opportunities to practice responsible self-direction in the society. In addition, much of the curriculum i s concerned with allowing students to learn about how people live in other places, times and how they are expected to influence the society.These understandings help students to develop high levels of self-awareness. This all can be achieved through the curriculum hence the curriculum helping in shaping the society by producing students that will be able to effectively self-guide themselves in the society. Conclusion Despite the strengths that govern the curriculum, there are a lot of shortfalls that can be corrected, for example inclusion of the rights of those in minority, thus the disabled, elderly just to mention a few. These also happen to be part and parcel of the society, whereby the topics of awareness included in the curriculum seem to dwell much on the abled.Consideration of teacher’s expertise when it comes to their familiarity with the materials and methods prescribed to be used in the teaching and learning process, this is to say that the curriculum indicates tha t it assumes that teachers are conversant with the materials they are expected to use in the teaching and learning process. Even though the curriculum assigns teachers to particular topic to teach, it does not opt for a follow up on whether there is observation of the prescribed topics and see if the required values are really being imparted on to the learners for the society’s benefit.REFERENCES Brosnan, M. J. (1999). Modelling Technophobia: a case for word processing Computers in Human Behaviour, New York; Guilford Hornby, A. S. (1995). Oxford dictionary: advanced learners edition 5, London; Oxford press International Education Agency, (2006). Report: Society and environment curriculum, revised edition: I. E. A Jacobs, D. (1996). LISREL8 user's reference guide, Illinois, USA: Scientific Software International. O'Neill, W. F. (1990). Educational Ideologies Contemporary Expressions of Educational Philosophy, Iowa: Kendall / Hunt Publishing CompanyPillai B. M. (1984). Smart sc hools: Better thinking and learning for every child, New York, USA: The Free Press. Webster, M. (2011). Higher Education in the 21st Century: Futures, New Jersey: USA Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF FOUNDATION STUDIES COURSE TITLE: CURRICULUM THEORY AND PRACTICE COOURSE CODE: EDU 3102 TO: Mrs O Nampanda FROM: Phunziro B. M Mphwina ASSIGNMENT: THE PURPOSE OF THE CURRICULUM TO THE SOCIETY DUE DATE 22/03/13

Bond Movie review Essays

Bond Movie review Essays Bond Movie review Essay Bond Movie review Essay Essay Topic: Catching Fire In every action film there is always at least one hero to save the day. They are usually accompanied by a member of the opposite sex who, through no fault of their own, has ended up stuck in the middle of some highly secretive operation. The James Bond films are, of course, no exception. An action film contains plenty of drama, action, stunts and usually a low level of wit and irony. In many films of this type the key to success is having very little dialogue. This therefore involves audiences from many different nationalities. Following the plot is made a lot easier with little dialogue. This seems to be apparent in most action films, however you do not see this in other genres of film such as romance and sci-fi. Crime films tend to use high amounts of dialogue, as, quite often, there is a tricky plot, which needs to be explained in as much detail and depth as possible. An action film not only has a hero but also a notorious villain, who for one reason or another is at large. In this type of film you can never get emotionally attached to a character, because their personalities are always so much different to that of your own. James Bond is a typical action hero in a typical action film. He has, as all action heroes must, changed over the years. The 1990’s saw huge transformations in the character of Bond. This had to happen because through out the years, people’s views, opinions and morals change. Things that appealed to women and men in pre-1990’s no longer appeal to them now. In Bond films, there are many things, which lure the audience in. Men are usually attracted to the action side of the film and the women involved, where as most women are attracted to the more sophisticated side of the hero and the comments that are made. The female actresses and how they are portrayed as bright, intelligent and brainy, quite often intrigue women. Men are also attracted to the technical side of things such as the gadgets and weapons used. They tend to get involved in the action. At the beginning of any film the first thing you will see is the certification of the film and the logo of the Production Company. In this case the certification is a 12 which means it is classed as family film, as it is a family film this means it will have a widely ranged target audience. As the film is of certificate 12 then no or few verbal obscenities will be used also there will be no explicit sex scenes or graphical obscenities such as high levels of violence. However there are some mild sex scenes and some violence. The violence used however is often portrayed in a comic strip style where you often only see the part before the act of violence and the final result. In many parts of the film Goldeneye. The violence and sex scenes are cut short so you know what has happened and you’ll find out the consequences either now or at a later point in the film. The united artists logo shows who the film has been produced by in this case it is a recognised company both in England and Hollywood. The fact that it is a recognised company makes the audience expect no less than its other productions. The film â€Å"Goldeneye† is made jointly with pound sterling and American dollars. It therefore has actors and actresses of both nationalities. This shows strong bonds between the Americans and British and appeals to audiences of both countries. This film would appeal to people across the globe as it contains highly detailed action sequences which on the whole make up for the little used of dialogue. The fact that it is made up of action sequence after action sequence makes it a whole lot easier for its international audience to understand and follow. The film also appeals to an international audience because it contains actors and actresses of many nationalities. The opening image in â€Å"Bond† is a familiarity to any true â€Å"Bond† fan. It sets the standard of the film and it has appeared on the screens of fans since the first film â€Å"Dr No† which was released in 1962. Maurice Binder designed it. The image is always accompanied by the 007-theme tune. This may vary in style and tempo throughout the films but it always has the same base for its melody. People hear the theme tune on their television screens and they automatically and quite rightly assume that Bond is on T.V. In this opening image you first see a plain black screen with one white circle appearing. Then, to the right of this another immerges. This process is repeated another six times. Although at the beginning you may wonder what the circles are you would probably think that they were something to do with the action and spy genre of the film. Perhaps the barrels of guns, several camera lenses, pairs of binoculars or possibly the viewfinder of a rifle. When only one circle is left on screen Bond is followed into its path and he quickly turns in an action hero type pose to shoot. This circle then turns into the inside of a barrel of a gun. This gun barrel is then covered in red as Bond fires. This most likely represents the blood of the person who tried to shoot Bond. The fact that there is so much black in this scene portrays the secrecy or maybe the sophistication of the character involved in this case Bond. It could also represent the darkness or evil being broken by light or good showing the black as evil and James Bond as the good. This image involves the audience right from the start using the actions that it does. For example when Bond turns to shoot it’s as if he’s turning to shoot at you. It could be an attempt to make the audience feel a part of the film. This also applies later on when the film begins to have a roller coaster affect and you feel that you are on that roller coaster with the characters in that scene. The establishing shot of the pre-credits sequence shows a plane flying low over a dam. This shot is a mixture of camera angles mainly high angle shots and very low shots. Most of the camera work is panned. The mixture of these angled shots give a roller-coaster effect and at times you feel you are either just above the plane or just below it. In this scene you feel as if you are on a roller coaster because you are seeing the scene in a panning shot which means it follows the action from one point rather than moving with it. It also gives the scene a huge feeling of perspective, you see that it is high above the ground as it shows the planes size in comparison with the dams size. The only sounds to be heard in this scene are that of the plane engines. This in its self creates tension as it breaks the silence that was present before. â€Å"The plane scene† shows the breath taking scenery you see in most Bond films. In this case the scene is set in the Contra dam near Locarno Switzerland instead of being near the Arkangel Chemical Weapons Facility in northern Russia. This location was probably chosen as it is surrounded by mountains and lush countryside. It is also in a remote location, which tends to be the setting for most action films as it gives the hero a chance to prove himself even more. The part of the pre-credit sequence when a figure dressed all in black is running along the top of the dam is important because you still don’t know who it is. You assume its Bond because the character seems calm and cool and extremely sophisticated and in control of the situation. He isn’t panting or out of breath in any way, which also builds up the image of an action hero, as they never seem to be defeated either mentally or physically, even when they are injured they carry on and succeed in any task or situation. Again there is little noise in this scene except the sound of running feet. This adds to the ever-growing tension because you still don’t know who this person is or what they are doing. The camera man/ woman in this particular series of shorts is running along behind the runner and it is jogging wildly. This is for more than one reason. The first reason that comes to mind is the fact that it is a point of view shot and so you see it as you would if y ou were running behind the character. The other reason that the camera is jogging wildly is that the person running isn’t actually the actor that plays bond but it is a stuntman named Wayne Michaels. When â€Å"Bond?† reaches the edge of the spot from where he will jump you see the distance he is going to jump and also see it from a point of view angle. This creates suspense and tension because you know what he’s going to do but you are just waiting for the reassurance that he’s going to do it. At this point you see that the actor is Bond and you know that what is about to happen I going to be dangerous. The bungee jump was the first jump ever to be attempted next to a wall of concrete. The stuntman, Wayne Michaels, had to do it from 640ft at an average speed of 100mph. In order to keep him away from the face of concrete in front of him he had to find a pocket of air to bounce him away from it. If he had timed anything wrong he would have had to do the whole jump again. The use of high and low angle shots in this scene adds to the roller coaster effect as it make s you feel you are there and involved in some way with the action. You feel the tension and know that something amazing is about to happen and then it does. The caption telling you where you are is a very important part of the film as it sets the scene and theme of the action. It specifies the place in which you are Arkangel Chemical Weapons Facility. It also tells you that you are in Communist Russia during the Glasnost period. You also now know that James Bond has something to do with it. The Piton and the laser gun, which are shot at the end of the jump, are the first two references to gadgets in the film. He pose straight after the jump is a typical Bond pose and it is the first time that the theme of iconography is brought out. Iconography is the idea of things associated with a character that for some reason is idolised. The pose with the gun and the tuxedo are only two of the things involved within the iconography. Iconic things are the bits and pieces that can make you recognise a character whit being told who it is for example James Bond â€Å"The names Bond, James Bond.† Also Arnold Swarzeneger and his well known phrase â€Å"I’ll be back.† Iconography plays an important part through ant film and the Bond films are no exception, they familiarise the audience with one or more characters. The Bungee jump itself is extremely important as it sets the pace for the film. Having sped the pace up the audience feel more engaged and settle to the idea of more excitement like that of which has just occurred. After breaking into the nerve gas storage plant via the Gents toilets Bond is shown in a close up. This is to show that Bond is the most important part in this scene and that all focus should be on him. This also distracts the audience from things that are going on all around Bond. This in itself brings the meeting of the mystery person in the darkened room as a shock. On his way to the room where he meets the mystery person you begin to realise the overwhelming odds against him. He is on his own with hundreds of guards patrolling the plant and yet he manages to miss every single one of them while on his travels. This adds to his role as fictional super hero because he will never die, he may be terribly injured on more than one occasion but he will never die. As Bond enters the darkened room the percussive sounds grow louder this creates tension and you know that something is about to happen, yet you are not sure exactly what. Then you hear some words spoken in a foreign language, wh ich you assume, are Russian. At first you think he has been caught and yet then Bonds reply tells you that he knows the person. He says, â€Å"I’m alone.† This response is delivered again in a cool and calm way. There is no sign of faltering in his voice. This would probably put the audience more at ease knowing that Bond is still in control of the situation. As the mystery person emerges into the light that Bond was and still is standing in you know that they know each other. You know this because conversation although quite short and precise is warm and humorous. Comments such as â€Å"Long time no see† and â€Å"Ready to save the world again† show that they have worked together before and shows the Bonds between them as being friendly. The fact that the character who we now know to be Alec Trevelyan has moved into the light maybe suggests that he is on Bonds side. Th light illustrates the good and the dark represents all evil. This is ironic because la ter in the film Alec betrays Bond and turns out to be working as a double agent. Wit and Humour are clearly evident in this scene after being told that he is late Bond tells Alec that he had to â€Å"Make a quick stop in the bathroom.† This has a double meaning and could make the audience laugh. Most of Alecs comments in this scene are ironic because instead of saving the world he’s actually trying to bring social disorder and destruction. The use of timers when they both enter the nerve gas storage area adds to the tension as it shows you that they are in trouble but you know that they have to escape as it is only the beginning of the film. The use of gadgets in this scene is again evident as Alec uses the decoder on the code panel. The next comment made is ironic as Alec says; â€Å"It’s too easy.† At this point the alarm bells start ringing and you hear the thunder of Russian Soldiers footsteps. This adds even more tension as everything has run smoothly up until this point. The camera work in this scene shows the teamwork between Alec and Bond as swift and seamless. They have rehearsed this before or it at least looks as if they have. They know exactly where each other should be and this shows the huge amount of co-operation needed to pull of a mission of this stature. The death of the Russian soldiers are all displayed n a cartoon strip way and this is because of the films certificate. Even though the audience knows that the enemies are dying there is hardly any blood, sympathy or suffering. After the falling of many Russian soldiers Ourumov, your traditional Bond villain, appears on the scene. At this point the percussive sounds of Bonds earlier meeting with the mystery person reappear and the hissing gets louder. He is displayed as your typical villain by his fraudulent and insidious grin. He has scars on his nose and looks as if he has many a story to tell. He too is full of jocular comments, which always seem to backfire on him. Bonds escape brings an appropriate end to the pre- credit sequence and although Alec is now â€Å"Dead† there is still a sense of accomplishment. To begin his escape Alec is at gunpoint. Bond is given a small length of time to â€Å"Come out with your hands above your head.† To which Bond still has a witty comment. After setting the timers to 3 minutes instead of leaving them for 6 Bond, rather exaggeratedly, throws down his rifle and steps circumspectly out just a little way. Alec tells Bond to finish the job and is then shot. Seeing as Alec has been shot leaves no reason for Bond to give himself up and after a, rather obvious, hint from Ourumov, that no one is to shoot him as they may blow the gas tanks up. Bond hides behind a trolley upon, which is stacked several tanks of Nerve gas. He rolls the trolley along the floor, which squeaks. This builds up the tension but also adds yet another bit of humour. Ourumov tells Bond he â€Å"Can’t win!† and of cour se Bond sees his escape upon a conveyor belt and he is free. The chase after this is some what prolonged. After catching up with a plane, Bond, in the process of throwing the pilot out, is thrown out himself. This knocks a bike driver off his bike and just as you think the mission is over another twist occurs. With Ourumovs men no longer in pursuit he has to catch up with the plane which is rapidly approaching the edge of a cliff, and drive it to safety. He catches up with the plane after it has gone off the cliff and he sky dives down to the plane and climbs in. Then to take the biscuit he pulls the plane out of a rather speculative nosedive and some how manages to escape unscathed. All of this shows Bond as an unreal super hero because after going through so much already you would have thought he would have given up both emotionally and physically. In the pre credit sequence there are no women. This may seem unusual for a Bond film but this is to give Bond himself the limelight, and in this sequence there is no need for women as it is just setting the scene. There are however women in the rest of the film. One is a villain who eventually gets her comeuppance and the other is a heroine as she assists Bond. She isn’t portrayed as someone who needs help with everything but she is shown as being strong, clever and also quite witty. This is another instance in which Bond films have been up dated. Women in the 1960’s were proud of how they were portrayed or if they weren’t then they weren’t bothered about how they were portrayed but today women take a more active part in society and expect to be shown how they really are. They tend to be brainier today and know how to deal with business and the development of new technology. The fast paced pre credit sequence has not only set up the audience to watch the rest of this film but it has geared them up to watch another Bond film. This is because it shows the audience what to expect in the line of stunts, gadgets and wacky and extremely unrealistic escapes. The whole of the pre- credit sequence is full of action and never actually slows down. It would be difficult to watch the rest of the film if you hadn’t seen the pre-credit sequence because even though the film is quite easy to follow most of the film action happens within the pre-credit sequence and the final sequence. Altogether Bond is portrayed as an unreal Super hero in what are quite possibly unreal situations. Or if the situations do happen then the odds against the hero/agent involved would be a whole lot higher. Bond hasn’t yet been killed because it is impossible to make the film last any longer if he is dead. Also Heroes hardly ever die in situations like this, there is Alec Trevelyan but he’s not really a hero and he’s not really dead. I think that most super heroes would probably end up dying because of old age just to show that the hero doesn’t die because he’s not up to his job. Bond is portrayed as your typical action hero in a typical action film. The series of films could go on and on not because the actor never dies, but because Bond never dies.

Contract situation Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Contract situation - Article Example The lawsuit filed by UC-Davis claims that Sacramento County in California was in breach of their agreed upon contract. The lawsuit is requesting repayment of indigent care services that have already been provided. Additionally a court order is being sought to require the county to cover all emergency care for residents who qualify as indigent in the future (California Healthline). The county contracted with a third party called Benefit and Risk Management Services that would provide cheaper services. It is estimated that by March of 2009 the county had apparently paid claims to the third party worth almost of the full amount of the contract. It was soon after that the county stopped reimbursing UC-Davis for the services that they had already administered. Letters were sent out by Sacramento County to residents that were eligible for indigent services informing them that their contract had been ended with UC-Davis and services received through them would no longer be covered. U-C Davis takes the stance that the County is responsible for the costs of these medical services with or without a contract. ( Robertson, Kathy). According to reports Sacramento County officials have declined to comment on the pending lawsuit. Officials did say that they would plan to continue communications with UC-Davis with attempts to resolve the matter outside of the court systems (California Healthline). It seems that this lawsuit is still fairly fresh and to date there are no reports of this contract situation being resolved. Negotiations between the County and UC-Davis appear to be occurring in an effort to resolve the matter. There seems to be a lack of information and understanding around the parameters of the contract between Sacramento county and UC-Davis. The California state law requires that counties assume responsibility for the cost of indigent care ( Robertson, Kathy). Given this law is on the books it appears that the County is responsible for payment of

Critique of Public Administration Research Paper

Critique of Public Administration - Research Paper Example Rubin’s article narrows down on the effect that these bureaucrats have on the budgeting process. Overall, the three articles deal with how these unelected officials have more effect on public administration and policy than the elected officials do. Summary In his article, the Critical Role of Street-level Bureaucrats, Lipsky undertakes an examination of the functions and roles, which bureaucrats perform at what he refers to as â€Å"street level†, have in the process of policy formulation, as well as the process of its implementation. While the public policy theory model traditionally assumes that choices on policy are done by the political executives elected by the electorate, with the implementation of the policy choices left to bureaucrat jurisdiction, Lipsky challenges this model. He bases his argument on his belief that since the bureaucrats at the street level possess a wider room for discretion during the performance of their work, they are actually the ones who make these policy choices (Lipsky, 2010: p4). On top of implementing them, they also create them. JQ Wilson, in his article the Rise of the Bureaucratic State, raises pertinent issues concerning the power wielded by bureaucratic agencies, as well as their lack of accountability towards the legislature and the public that formed them. He also covers the discretion that these agencies possess in carrying out government affairs. The author goes further to talk about the agencies as self-perpetuating. These self-perpetuating agencies are created by the separated powers regime, which acts to protect them from the change that is unwelcome since the major change is new legislation, which, in effect, must maneuver similar hurdles to those faced by the original law (Wilson, 1975: p9). This time, however, one hurdle they must clear is the wish of the particular agency, as well as its clients, which is raised higher. The agency, therefore, once created, becomes almost impossible to disband. Th e author concludes that this process of public power delegation to private interests that go unchallenged, as well as various factional interests, is able to set a public agenda sans modification of competing interests or scrutiny. Irene Rubin, in her article the Politics of Public Budgeting, shows how political interests beset public budgeting. She argues that this allows short-term goals to trump long-term goals interests of the public, the erosion of public and institutional capacity to deal with collective issues, and erosion of the democratic process. When Rubin presents a local, state, and federal budgeting in a framework that is competitive, he gives attention to federal issues that are reactive to power struggles between various levels and branches of government (Rubin, 1997: p190). She addresses issues such as how much autonomy is present at each government level, as well as what influence elected officials have on priorities of the government. Through an analysis of each p rocess of decision-making, she shows the coordination that is involved when passing a budget and achieving some accountability. One of her conclusions is that the public budgeting process must be divorced from politics.  Ã‚